What does "it is the wicked who are saved" mean? The answer Shinran arrived at after 90 years

What does "it is the wicked who are saved" mean? The answer Shinran arrived at after 90 years

//Summary - Level-C1//
The text introduces Shinran (1173–1262), founder of Jōdo Shinshū, whose teachings grew out of a lifelong struggle with the limits of ascetic practice. After years of Tendai training and later study under Hōnen, he embraced faith in Amida Buddha’s saving vow rather than self-powered enlightenment. Exiled during the persecution of the Jōdo movement, Shinran married and lived as an ordinary person, which shaped his belief that salvation is available to all. His central doctrine, expressed in “even the virtuous attain rebirth, how much more so the wicked,” emphasises compassion, equality, and reliance on Amida’s grace for those burdened by human weakness and suffering.

1)
People live their lives in confusion. This has remained unchanged throughout history, in both the West and the East. History books do not record the ‘inner thoughts’ of people. However, by examining the religions of the time, we can catch a glimpse of what troubled the people of that era.

2)
This article introduces Shinran, the founder of Jōdo Shinshū. He preached the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism, which involve chanting ‘Namu Amida Butsu’ to honour Amida Buddha and be saved by him, and held a philosophy of equality—which could be described as ultimate—expressed in the words: ‘If even the virtuous attain rebirth, how much more so the wicked?’

So, what sort of life did he lead before arriving at this philosophy?

3)
Shinran’s Early Life:

Shinran was born during the heyday of the Taira clan, when Taira no Kiyomori was at the height of his power. It is believed to have been in the third year of the Jōan era (1173). His father, Hino Arinori, was a nobleman who served the Empress. The Emperor at that time was Emperor Takakura, and the Empress was Noriko (or Tokushi), the daughter of Kiyomori.

Although Shinran’s name changed several times during his childhood, we will refer to him consistently as ‘Shinran’ in this article.

4)
Shinran’s Ordination:

In Jishō 5 (1181), when the young Shinran was nine years old by the traditional Japanese counting system, he entered Shōren-in and took monastic vows. One reason, it is thought, was the great famine that struck the Kyoto area that year. It is said that he subsequently undertook ascetic training at Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei for approximately 20 years.

5)
Hatsusaburō Yoshida, *Illustrated Guide to the Famous Places of Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei*; Source: Kyoto Prefectural Kyoto-gaku Rekisai-kan Historical Materials Archive

6)
Both Shōren-in and Mount Hiei are temples of the Tendai school. Although he continued his training for many years within the Tendai school—which seeks enlightenment through rigorous ascetic practice—Shinran apparently did not feel that this form of practice suited him.

7)
His Encounter with Hōnen:

In the first year of the Ken’nin era (1201), at the age of 29 (by the traditional Japanese counting system), Shinran descended from Mount Hiei and undertook a hundred-day retreat in the Rokkaku-dō hall at Chōhō-ji Temple, which is said to have been founded by Prince Shōtoku. There, Prince Shōtoku appeared to him in a dream and told him, ‘Go and meet Hōnen.’

Hōnen was a monk forty years Shinran’s senior who, like Shinran, had trained on Mount Hiei and later became the founder of the Jōdo-shū school. Shinran immediately went to Hōnen and studied his teachings.

8)
‘Portrait of Hōnen Shōnin’ Source: Keio University (Century Akao Collection)

9)
Shinran was particularly moved by the teaching of ‘Senju Nenbutsu’ (exclusive practice of the Nembutsu), which emphasised faith in Amida Buddha and the single-minded recitation of the Nembutsu. As he trained under Hōnen, he gradually earned high regard.

10)
The Persecution of the Jōdo Sect:

However, to other sects—which held the belief that one must undergo rigorous ascetic practice to reach the Pure Land—the teachings of the Jōdo Sect, which preached that one could reach the Pure Land simply by chanting the Nembutsu, must have appeared deviant. Petitions began to be submitted to the Imperial Court, urging it to issue an order to stop Nembutsu practice.

11)
Then, in February of Ken’ei 2 (1207), the Jōdo-shū incurred the wrath of Emperor Go-Toba. The cause was an incident in which two lady-in-waiting (high-ranking court ladies) serving Emperor Go-Toba converted to the Jōdo-shū and took monastic vows while he was away. Furthermore, rumours that these ladies had been having an affair with a monk were the cause of Emperor Go-Toba’s fierce anger.

12)
Monks involved in the ordination of married women were sentenced to death. Hōnen and Shinran were stripped of their monastic status, forcibly returned to lay life, and exiled; Hōnen was exiled to Tosa Province (present-day Kōchi Prefecture), whilst Shinran was exiled to Echigo Province (present-day Niigata Prefecture). This incident is known as the ‘Jōgen Persecution’.

13)
A Monk Who Was Married:

Here, I would like to share an unusual anecdote about Shinran. In fact, Shinran was married. In Buddhism at that time, monks were expected to remain celibate, and physical relations with women were forbidden.

However, it is said that Hōnen taught that ‘Amida Buddha saves us all, whether we are monks or not’. Although Hōnen himself was not married, Shinran, following this teaching, later married a woman known as Eshin-ni and had children with her.

 
14)
Saichirō Tanaka, ‘Eshin-ni’ – Source: Aichi Prefectural Museum of Art

15)
Although the exact date of his marriage to Eshin-ni is unclear, she accompanied him into exile in Echigo and remained by his side for the rest of his life.

16)
From Return to Kyoto to the Bando Region:

In November of the first year of the Kenryaku era (1211), nearly five years after their exile, Hōnen and Shinran were finally granted permission to return to Kyoto. Upon hearing that Hōnen had arrived in Kyoto, Shinran also wished to meet his master; however, heavy snowfall in Echigo Province kept him from travelling. He waited for spring, but in January of the following year, Kenryaku 2 (1212), Hōnen died at age 80.

17)
Shinran’s movements immediately following this are unclear. Some say he either remained in Echigo Province or returned to Kyoto.

Shinran set out again in Kenpō 2 (1214). Aged 42, he travelled to the Kantō region to carry out missionary work. He established a base in Hitachi Province (present-day Ibaraki Prefecture) and devoted himself to missionary work for approximately twenty years.

Upon reaching his sixties, he returned to Kyoto, where he devoted himself to writing. Over the next thirty years or so, he authored numerous works before passing away in the second year of the Kōchō era (1262) at the age of ninety.

18)
Shinran’s Teachings:

Shinran left behind numerous writings until his death, but his most representative work is known as the *Kyōgyōshinshō*. Its formal title is *Kenjōdo Shinjitsu Kyōgyōshō Monrui*.

19)
It is a six-volume Jōdo Shinshū scripture. Its content consists of a commentary on Hōnen’s treatise, the *Senchaku-shū* (*Senjaku-shū*). The original manuscript in Shinran’s own handwriting is now designated a National Treasure.

It is difficult to summarise its contents in a few words, given that numerous books have been written since the Edo period solely to comment on the *Kyōgyōshinshō*… However, the preface reads as follows.

20)
On Other-Power:

The unfathomable great vow is a mighty ship that ferries beings across the sea of suffering.

The vows of the Bodhisattva are of a realm that is, for the most part, beyond human comprehension. Whilst the act of ‘making a vow’ typically requires one to undertake ascetic practices commensurate with that vow, Amida Tathāgata has made a boundless vow such as ‘to save all living beings in this world’.

21)
‘Statue of Amida Tathāgata’ – Adapted from ColBase

Therefore, rather than practising asceticism ourselves, let us rely on the vows made by Amida Tathāgata. It is precisely this—that Amida Tathāgata’s vows are the ‘Sea of Difficulty’… and become the great ship that carries us across a life filled with endless human suffering and delusion…—that explains the concept of ‘Salvation through the Power of Another’ (Tariki Hongan).

22)
The unimpeded light is the sun of wisdom that dispels the darkness of ignorance.

This lies at the very heart of the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism. When people feel lonely, they feel that way even when many people are around them. However, Pure Land Buddhism teaches that ‘there is no need to remain in the darkness’ ‘If you dispel the darkness in which you have shut yourself away, believing yourself to be alone, your world will expand,’ it teaches.

23)
Normally, expanding one’s world and entering the bright light would require rigorous ascetic practice. However, in the teachings of Pure Land Buddhism, the light that dispels that loneliness is the ‘Light of Enlightenment’. That is to say, it is the Vows of Amitābha Tathāgata. It is written that this light is like the sun (the Sun of Wisdom) that can never be obscured……

24)
Regarding the ‘Evildoers as the True Object of Salvation’:

Equally saving the multitude of those in suffering, the Compassion of the World-Honoured One extends even to those who are utterly depraved and slander the Dharma.

‘The multitude’ refers to those suffering from afflictions, whilst ‘the World-Honoured One’ refers to the Buddha. The ‘reverse’ in ‘reverse-slanderers and those of the Cāndala nature’ refers to the ‘Five Grave Offences’—the five most serious sins in Buddhism: ‘killing one’s father’, ‘killing one’s mother’, ‘killing an enlightened sage’, ‘wounding the Buddha’s body and causing him to bleed’, and ‘disrupting the harmony of the sangha and causing division’.

25)
Furthermore, ‘slander’ (bō) refers to criticising and attacking the Buddha’s teachings, whilst ‘Candala’ denotes a lack of faith in Buddhist teachings. Buddhism has traditionally regarded those who commit these sins as ‘wretched evildoers beyond salvation’.

However, if Amida Tathāgata is to save all living beings in this world, then he will extend a helping hand even to such evildoers. This implies that the Pure Land teachings are intended precisely for such people.

26)
This embodies the very concept of ‘the wicked as the true object of salvation’ (akunin shōki) put forward by Shinran. The phrase ‘If even the virtuous attain rebirth, how much more so the wicked?’ means that ‘the salvation of the wicked is precisely the vow of Amida Tathāgata’. Furthermore, the method by which such wicked people are saved is encapsulated in the term ‘salvation through the power of another’ (tariki hongan).

27)
What Shinran sought to save:

When one hears the term ‘Tarikihongan’, there is a tendency to view it as a negative concept—as if one were simply handing over one’s responsibilities to another and claiming the task has been completed. However, when it comes to seeking salvation through Buddhism, how many people are actually capable of enduring the rigorous ascetic practices that are a matter of life and death?

28)
Shinran was a man who, having harboured doubts about the ascetic practices on Mount Hiei, descended from the mountain. Moreover, he was married—a taboo in Buddhism at the time—and even had children. When he pondered deeply, asking, ‘I cannot complete a single ascetic practice. Why is it that I cannot…?’, Shinran concluded that ‘it is because my very nature is that of an evil person’.

29)
Of course, Shinran had never killed anyone, nor had he ever stolen anything or harmed anyone. The term ‘evil person’ used here does not refer to a ‘criminal’ in the modern sense.

If one is unable to practise asceticism, one has no choice but to rely on the vows of Amida Tathāgata (other-power). This leads to the conclusion that ‘I, who rely on other-power, am an evil person’. However, an evil person cannot practise asceticism on their own. That is precisely why they have no choice but to rely on other-power. These words strike at the very heart of such a person’s deep karma.

30)
Jōdo Shinshū after Shinran’s death:

Often, after the death of a great leader, differences in interpreting their teachings lead to the formation of various sects. At times, the teachings take on a life of their own, straying far from the original intent; lamenting this, one of Shinran’s direct disciples recorded his thoughts in the *Tannishō* (Treatise on Differing Opinions), presenting them as Shinran’s own words.

31)
Whilst there are various theories regarding the author, the most likely candidate at present is Yuien, a direct disciple of Shinran in his later years. Rennyo, a Jōdo Shinshū monk of the Muromachi period, later transcribed it, and it became widely known.

32)
As the *Tannishō* is written in relatively simple language, it is often read as an introductory text to Shinran’s philosophy. It is also peppered with words of comfort that offer solace to the negative emotions everyone experiences, such as ‘Why do only bad things happen to me?’ or ‘Why does nothing ever go right for me, no matter what I do?’

33)
Having encountered Shinran’s teachings in this way, I found myself thinking that perhaps Shinran was, after all, just an ordinary person… I sense that somewhere deep down, he harboured the desire: ‘First and foremost, I want to be saved myself.’

34)
Although he was a monk, he did not undertake rigorous ascetic practices; he married and even had children… If he could show that someone like himself—full of contradictions and burdened with deep karma—could be saved, then others too would harbour the hope that ‘perhaps I, too, can be saved’. If he demonstrated it through his own practice, others would likely take that first step, thinking, ‘Perhaps I can do it too.’ Personally, I think that is how he viewed things.

35)
It is precisely because he was that sort of person that Shinran’s teachings have endured for 800 years—even as eras and values have changed—as words that seem to reach out to ‘those in distress’ across the ages.

What does "it is the wicked who are saved" mean? The answer Shinran arrived at after 90 years

https://intojapanwaraku.com/culture/312018/

Unpacking Franz Schmidt's "Oratorio 'The Book with Seven' Seals"

Unpacking Franz Schmidt's "Oratorio 'The Book with Seven' Seals"

//Summary - Level-C1//

The NHK Symphony Orchestra will open its 2026-27 season with its first performance of Franz Schmidt’s monumental oratorio The Book with Seven Seals, conducted by Fabio Luisi. Based on the Book of Revelation, the work combines profound spirituality, dramatic power, rich orchestral writing, and prominent organ and choral parts. Composed in 1938 near the end of Schmidt’s life, it is regarded as the culmination of his artistic achievement. Scholars have interpreted it as both a vision of salvation and a reflection on approaching global catastrophe. Luisi considers it a major 20th-century masterpiece whose message of renewal remains deeply relevant today.

1)
The NHK Symphony Orchestra’s 2026–27 season is finally set to open on 12 and 13 September 2026. The season will kick off with Franz Schmidt’s grand vocal work, the oratorio ‘The Book with Seven Seals’. Conducted by Fabio Luisi, this will be the first time the NHK Symphony Orchestra has performed the piece. 

Who was Franz Schmidt as a composer, and what are the charms of the ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven” Seals’? We will explore these questions in depth in this special feature.

2)
Albrecht Dürer, ‘The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse’ (woodcut):

Franz Schmidt’s ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven Seals’ is based on the biblical Book of Revelation. This woodcut depicts the horsemen who appear when the first four seals are broken in the Book of Revelation (created in 1498 / first edition published).

3)
Enjoy the serene yet sumptuous music that represents the culmination of Franz Schmidt’s musical career, alongside Luigi’s reflections;

Fans who have been following the NHK Symphony Orchestra’s performances in recent years may well have heard works by the Austrian composer Franz Schmidt (1874–1939). Ryuzen Numajiri conducted his *Symphony No. 2* in November 2021, and Fabio Luigi will conduct his *Symphony No. 4* in September 2025.

However, apart from these, the NHK Symphony Orchestra has performed only three of his works on a total of seven occasions; it is also true that he and his works cannot be described as ‘familiar’.

4)
Nevertheless, Franz Schmidt’s works are all masterpieces that, even amidst their serene music, undeniably convey a sense of surging power. This musician, who demonstrated his talent to the full both as a cellist with the Vienna Philharmonic and as a composer, created his masterpiece, the ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven Seals”’ (premiered in 1938), in the very twilight of his life.

Like Johann Sebastian Bach’s *St Matthew Passion*, it is based on the biblical text, the *Book of Revelation*. However, it has been reworked according to a unique worldview that evokes not only the famous ‘Last Judgement’ but also the fulfilment of God’s order and salvation; it also possesses an aspect that can be seen as a veritable ‘prophecy’ of the coming calamities of the Second World War.

5)
In this monumental work, comprising three parts, the entire composition is organically structured through the repetition of simple motifs. The organ—an instrument in which Franz Schmidt excelled—is treated in the style of a prelude, conveying the composer’s strong individuality.

Furthermore, one can simultaneously enjoy the sumptuous orchestral sound that is characteristic of Franz Schmidt, who had experience conducting the works of Mahler and Richard Strauss. It is, indeed, a work that can be described as the culmination of his own life’s journey.

6)
Given that he chose to perform the *Symphony No. 4* in 2025, and that this work was among the nominees in the audience vote for the programme to mark the 2,000th concert, it is clear that Luigi, currently in the role of Principal Conductor, has a special affinity for Franz Schmidt and this particular work.

Luigi says that, even in these increasingly turbulent modern times, he feels a deep connection to the work’s message—that a new era will dawn after ‘apocalyptic’ destruction—and has high hopes for the performance with the NHK Symphony Orchestra. There is no doubt that this will be a landmark performance in the history of the NHK Symphony Orchestra.

7)
Franz Schmidt was a composer born in 1874 in Pressburg, Austria-Hungary (now Bratislava, Slovakia).

8)
Fabio Luisi on the ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven Seals”’:

──Franz Schmidt’s ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven Seals”’ was one of the candidates when the programme for the 2000th subscription concert in December 2023 was selected by public vote. What led you to choose to perform this oratorio with the NHK Symphony Orchestra now?

Fabio Luisi (hereinafter FL):
This oratorio can surely be considered one of the most important works of the 20th century. The music reflects Franz Schmidt’s individuality and, above all, possesses a powerful dramatic quality. It is a deeply religious work based on the theme of the Book of Revelation, encompassing both the Old Testament and New Testament worlds.

There is no doubt that it is a first-rate work well worth performing. I felt it would be an extremely appealing piece for the NHK Symphony Orchestra, allowing them to demonstrate their outstanding technical prowess. As it is rarely performed worldwide, I also saw it as a new challenge.

9)
—Could you tell us which parts of this work you would particularly like the audience to listen out for?

FL:
I believe the most important element is the choir. The choir shoulders the vital role of narrating the story of the *Revelation of St John* with power and vividness. Franz Schmidt demonstrated his mastery when composing the choral parts, presenting the complex technique of the four-part fugue in perfect form; this is where his extraordinary genius is revealed.

10)
—When conducting music of such a massive scale accompanied by a choir, what do you prioritise above all else?

FL:
It is a work in which many people are intricately involved. The orchestra, choir and soloists come together to create a multi-layered performance. Because the volume naturally tends to be high, it is vital to keep the sound transparent so the whole does not descend into chaotic disorder.

I believe it is essential to control the softer sounds with particular care so that everything can be heard clearly.

11)
—Apart from the choir, are there any other highlights?

FL:
Yes, there are. Another important element is the organ. Parts I and II each feature a prelude for solo organ. It is unprecedented for the section corresponding to the prelude of an oratorio to be performed as a solo organ piece. As Franz Schmidt himself was an accomplished organist and composed many organ pieces, I believe he assigned this special role to the organ.

The role of the organ in this work is clearly distinct from that in the oratorios of Bach or Mendelssohn, for example. I believe that what Franz Schmidt has the organ express in these two preludes is the human reaction of awe towards the events depicted in the *Book of Revelation*, and an expression of humanity itself.

Therefore, these two sections for the organ are not only important to the composer himself, but are also exceptionally beautiful and have a very powerful impact.

12)
—Whilst this work follows the text of the *Book of Revelation*, it depicts the apocalypse—the collapse of the world—not as a catastrophe, but as the fulfilment of God’s order. This seems a rather unusual interpretation; how did Franz Schmidt intend to express this musically?

FL:
The *Book of Revelation* is characterised by very intense elements such as calamity, evil and destruction. It depicts the moment of our world’s end in powerful terms. However, Franz Schmidt presents this not as a complete and utter end, but as the fulfilment of God’s order, signifying a transition to the next form of existence.

It demonstrates that a better world awaits after the end of this world. I believe Franz Schmidt used his music to convey that a new era will dawn following this ‘Revelation’.

13)
—This oratorio was composed whilst Germany was under Nazi rule, on the eve of the outbreak of the Second World War. Now, in the 21st century, when the global situation is in such turmoil, how will this work resonate, and how will audiences receive it?

FL:
We are experiencing the same anxieties as people did in 1938. Although we live in a different era from Franz Schmidt, I believe that a work which retains its significance and resonates across the ages is a masterpiece and great music.

Outstanding works possess a new power for the listener. For example, I believe the spiritual power of Bach’s *St Matthew Passion*, written some 300 years ago, illustrates this perfectly. I am convinced that this work by Franz Schmidt, too, will resonate in the present day with the same impact as when it was written 100 years ago.

14)
NHK Symphony Orchestra 100th Anniversary Special Programme | September 2026 Regular Concert, Programme A
Franz Schmidt: ‘Oratorio “The Book with Seven Seals”’
12 September 2026 (Sat) 6.00 pm, 13 September (Sun) 2.00 pm
NHK Hall

Conductor: Fabio Luigi
John (tenor): Michael Laurenz
Voice of God (bass): David Steffens
Soprano: Miho Sakoda
Mezzo-soprano: Asami Fujii
Tenor: Tatsuhito Ito
Bass: Hirotaka Kato
Organ: Eri Niiyama
Chorus: New National Theatre Chorus

Unpacking Franz Schmidt's "Oratorio 'The Book with Seven' Seals"
https://www.nhkso.or.jp/news/20260601.html

[Maestro's Message] Fabio Luisi discusses "The Book with Seven Seals", "Resurrection", and "Tosca" — works marking the NHK Symphony Orchestra's 100th anniversary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pn2PklPoHdY

[Fan-Voted Program] No1.Franz Schmidt: Oratorio "The Book with Seven Seals" [NHK Symphony Orchestra 2000th Subscription Concert]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTeQ0ON6UMU

A Viennese masterpiece worth hearing today: What makes Franz Schmidt's "The Book with Seven Seals" so compelling?
https://ebravo.jp/archives/212248

Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln - Wikipedia
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/7%E3%81%A4%E3%81%AE%E5%B0%81%E5%8D%B0%E3%81%AE%E6%9B%B8

Does the key to solving complex problems lie in ‘the ability to endure’? Learning the techniques of ‘negative capability’

Does the key to solving complex problems lie in ‘the ability to endure’? Learning the techniques of ‘negative capability’

//Summary - Level-C1//
This text explores negative capability, a concept introduced by John Keats, meaning the ability to tolerate uncertainty, doubt, and unanswered questions without rushing to explanations. Psychiatrist Hōsei Hōki discovered its value during a crisis of confidence in his medical career and found it essential for empathising with patients whose futures remained uncertain. Revived by psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion, the concept became influential in psychotherapy, where openness and humility are prioritised over fixed knowledge. In a world focused on immediate solutions, negative capability encourages patience, deep understanding, long-term thinking, and hope, enabling people to engage more meaningfully with complex realities.

1)
The ability to remain in a state of uncertainty, mystery and doubt without hastily seeking facts or reasons—this is how the concept of ‘negative capability’, discovered by the poet John Keats in the 19th century, is defined. As global challenges come to the fore and long-term thinking is required to resolve them, an attitude that does not seek immediate answers may become increasingly important. Psychiatrist and writer Hōsei Hōki explores ‘negative capability’, a concept currently being ‘rediscovered’ in medicine, education, and the arts.

2)
Uncertainty, mystery, scepticism:

‘Negative capability’ refers to ‘the ability to remain within uncertainty, mystery and scepticism without impatiently seeking facts or reasons’, or ‘the ability to endure situations for which there is simply no answer and which cannot be dealt with’.

3)
I first encountered this concept around six or seven years into my career as a psychiatrist. It was a time when I was losing confidence in myself as a doctor. Having completed my training and spent a few years at a hospital outside the university before returning, I found that patients I had discharged believing them to be cured had been readmitted, whilst patients who had not recovered were still hospitalised. I spent my days feeling disappointed and lacking in confidence, wondering whether psychiatry was capable of achieving only the very little.

It was at that time that my attention was drawn to a paper published in the *American Journal of Psychiatry* entitled ‘Toward empathy: the uses of wonder. ’ published in the *American Journal of Psychiatry*. It was in this paper that the term ‘negative capability’ first appeared.

4)
Firstly, I was surprised to see the word ‘negative’ attached to ‘capability’. When we hear the word ‘capability’, we tend to think of it as something used to solve problems or tackle challenges. As I read on, however, I came to realise that in the world of psychiatry—where we must continue to stand by patients whose futures remain uncertain—this is an essential concept for enduring with the belief that ‘they will recover someday’.

To me, this concept felt like a lifeline. The author concluded that this very capability is the means by which one can delve deeply into the essence of the subject, and the pathway to genuine empathy.

5)
A concept rediscovered after some 160 years:

The first to discover ‘negative capability’ was John Keats, a leading poet of the British Romantic movement. Keats spoke of the poet as follows:

‘The poet is the most unpoetic of all beings. This is because the poet has no identity. The poet is constantly seeking an identity but never attains it; instead, he fills it with something else. The sun, the moon, the sea, men and women—all products of God’s impulse—are poetic and possess unchangeable attributes. The poet, however, possesses nothing. He has no identity. Indeed, of all God’s creations, he is the least poetic. He has no self.”

6)
A poet without an identity reaches the essence of things whilst desperately searching for it. The very force that sustains this state of limbo is ‘negative capability’. Keats believed that Shakespeare possessed this ability to an extraordinary degree, and that it was necessary not only for writers but also for poets. Keats used this term only once—in a letter he left to his brothers.

It was Wilfred R. Bion—a psychiatrist who served during the Second World War and a leading figure in British psychoanalysis—who brought Keats’s insight, which died in 1821, back into the spotlight. This occurred some 160 years after Keats’s death.

7)
Bion argued that, in the context of psychotherapy—where real people interact with one another—this is the very capacity that the therapist must continually maintain. Furthermore, Bion stated that psychotherapy is most effective precisely when it takes place in the absence of ‘memory’, ‘desire’ and ‘understanding’.

He urged therapists to erase their own knowledge from their minds, to avoid being driven by the desire to ‘make the patient a certain way’, and not to attempt to understand the patient in a self-serving manner. He advised them to begin by approaching the patient before them with a mind as fresh as a newborn baby's and listening humbly.

8)
Because of this ability, he argued, the therapist can step away from their own perspective, delve into the recesses of the patient’s mind, understand the patient on a higher plane, and maximise the effectiveness of psychotherapy. Here, one can discern Bion’s concerns regarding psychoanalysis. As psychoanalytic knowledge and theory accumulated, Bion believed that, rather than using theory to force patients into a mould, one should prioritise genuine dialogue with the patient.

Of course, similar concepts existed before this. Husserl’s phenomenological reduction and Freud’s free association, for instance, bear similarities to Keats’s ideas. Bion situated the capacity Keats identified in the realm of art within the history of psychiatry.

9)
An activity contrary to human instinct:

What is currently regarded as important in the world today is ‘positive capability’. This refers to the ability to solve problems and handle matters, and it is precisely this ability that modern school education pursues. However, I believe that positive capability and negative capability can coexist, and I would like many people to bear the latter in mind.

10)
However, negative capability is, by its very nature, an activity that runs counter to human instinct. The human brain finds it difficult to tolerate the unknown or the uncertain, and harbours a desire to find provisional answers to everything. It struggles to refrain from hastily identifying problems, to avoid finding solutions based on half-baked interpretations or knowledge, and to endure a state of limbo.

11)
That is precisely why we cannot accept complex matters as they are, and instead resort to simplification or standardisation. We seek to exclude from the outset anything for which there is no answer or which cannot be standardised. Consequently, our understanding remains confined to a very narrow scope and fails to develop to a higher level. If that ‘understanding’ is merely provisional, the tragedy becomes even more profound.

12)
In his essay ‘The Man Who Knew Too Much’, the Japanese novelist Senji Kuroi writes as follows: ‘Even so, I found myself compelled to reflect once more: might it not be better if mysteries and questions were not so readily answered? Might it not be the case that a mystery, left unresolved, grows and matures through the warmth of the person who harbours it, developing into an even richer enigma? And in some cases, I cannot help but feel that a mystery which has gained even greater depth harbours something far more precious within it than a shallow answer.”

Negative capability is what generates the endurance to persevere, born of the conviction that a deep and constructive understanding inevitably awaits at the end of enduring a state of limbo.

13)
An attitude that finds hope:

Negative capability might also be described as the ‘ability to be uncertain’. We live in an age where standardisation runs rampant in an effort to eliminate uncertainty. The reflections and insights born of uncertainty are disregarded, and uncertainty itself is regarded as a vice.

14)
Yet negative capability means that it is acceptable to be uncertain; it can also be seen as a way of viewing things that transcends the linear timeline. For example, it is said that a disruption in the pathways for proximal and distal rewards causes gambling addiction.

Distal rewards involve thinking about the distant future—such as the prospect of gaining entry to a good university if one studies now—whilst proximal rewards involve seeking immediate gratification. In people with gambling addiction, proximal rewards have effectively hijacked distal rewards. People who are constantly focused on short-term problem-solving and immediate answers may well have brains that have become ‘gamblingised’. This is precisely why the ability to think beyond the constraints of the timeline becomes so important.

15)
Furthermore, ‘negative capability’ does not mean giving up. It is an attitude of striving to endure an uncertain situation—even if it cannot be changed at present—and finding hope within it. Discovering this together with the patient is surely how a therapist should conduct themselves. In much of addiction treatment, the prognosis given at the initial consultation is often proven wrong. Even if we cannot predict the outcome, we have no choice but to move forward while supporting the patient with a long-term perspective.

16)
I’m often asked, ‘How can I acquire this ability?’, but that question itself reflects a mindset poisoned by the desire for a step-by-step guide. It is enough to be aware of this concept, keep it in mind, and maintain an attitude of perseverance.

Just as John Keats recognised ‘negative capability’ in Shakespeare, this was a perfectly natural attitude in the arts. It is equally true for art appreciators; the very act of appreciating works of art—such as contemporary art—that cannot be easily interpreted may well help to cultivate ‘negative capability’.

Does the key to solving complex problems lie in ‘the ability to endure’? Learning the techniques of ‘negative capability’

https://www.sankei.com/article/20200404-MJC4X6ZJANJP3DZVRXKMPILMCM/

Your potential depends on how well you can endure the time spent without an answer—the true measure of uncertainty tolerance that enables you to tackle long-term challenges.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SEC6paLimI

Things to know to get more out of the film "The Odyssey"

Things to know to get more out of the film "The Odyssey"

//Summary - Level-C1//
This article introduces The Odyssey, Homer’s ancient Greek epic about Odysseus’s ten-year struggle to return home after the Trojan War. It explains the poem’s origins, the significance of the Trojan Horse, and the Greek concept of xenia, or sacred hospitality. The text also discusses Christopher Nolan’s film adaptation, including casting controversies, its groundbreaking use of IMAX technology, and large-scale practical filmmaking. Finally, it highlights key differences between the film and the original epic, portraying Odysseus as a traumatised, morally conflicted figure and reinterpreting characters such as Calypso and Circe to reflect modern themes of healing, guilt, and self-discovery.

1)
Christopher Nolan’s film *The Odyssey* depicts the ten-year journey of the Greek hero Odysseus—who devised the Trojan Horse strategy—as he returns home following the Trojan War. How did this ancient Greek epic, *The Odyssey*, which has been read and passed down for some 3,000 years, come into being, and what story does it tell? Let us take a brief look at the basics of *The Odyssey*—which we may think we know but actually do not—and the differences between the film and the original text.

2)
What are Homer’s epics, *The Odyssey* and *The Iliad*?

The *Odyssey* and the *Iliad*, believed to have been composed around the 8th–7th centuries BC, are both epic poems by the ancient Greek bard Homer. However, his true identity remains shrouded in mystery. It is not even certain whether Homer was a real person; indeed, some theories suggest that these stories, passed down orally for a long time, may have been shaped by multiple narrators.

3)
While the *Iliad* depicts the Trojan War, the *Odyssey* centres on Odysseus, the hero who distinguished himself in that conflict. Unable to return home even after the war had ended, he sets out on a journey back to Ithaca—where his wife Penelope and son Telemachus await him—enduring ten years of hardship and adventure. It is a vast epic poem, comprising some 12,000 lines in the original Greek, and is made up of 24 books.

4)
What are the ‘Trojan War’, the ‘Trojan Horse’ and ‘Zeus’s decree’?

The Trojan War is essential to understanding *The Odyssey*. The Achaeans—that is, the ancient Greeks—invaded the city of Troy, believed to have been located in what is now north-western Turkey, and the conflict lasted for ten years.

It was the ‘Trojan Horse’—a tactic said to have been devised by Odysseus—that brought the war to an end. Realising that a direct assault could not take the impregnable city of Troy, Odysseus devised a cunning stratagem: hide soldiers inside a giant wooden horse and have it carried into the city as a gift.

5)
By modern standards, one would hardly accept a giant wooden horse offered as a ‘gift’ by the enemy without a second thought. However, ancient Greek society had a culture of hospitality known as ‘xenia’, which involved welcoming guests with great generosity. Under this value system—referred to in the play as ‘the laws of Zeus’—it was considered the host’s duty first to provide food, drink and a place to sleep, and to ensure the safety of any visitor, whether they were a king, an envoy, a friend or a beggar.

6)
This also has religious significance. The ancient Greeks believed the gods sometimes visited humans in the guise of travellers or beggars to test their hearts. Consequently, treating a guest shabbily was tantamount to blasphemy against the gods and an act that could invite divine retribution.

Odysseus exploited this social value of ‘welcoming guests’ to persuade the Trojans to carry the wooden horse into the city themselves. When night fell, the soldiers inside emerged and opened the city gates, ushering in the Greek army waiting outside and finally ending the ten-year war.

7)
Criticism of the casting before release

It is said that the casting of Matt Damon (as Odysseus), who has collaborated with director Christopher Nolan on *Interstellar* (2014) and *Oppenheimer* (2023), and Anne Hathaway (as Odysseus’s wife Penelope), who appeared in *The Dark Knight Rises* (2012) and *Interstellar*, was finalised at an early stage.

8)
Meanwhile, some casting choices came under fire on social media even before the film’s release. At the centre of this controversy was the decision to cast Lupita Nyong’o in the dual roles of Helen—who, in Greek mythology, is regarded as ‘the most beautiful woman in the world’ and whose beauty is said to have sparked the Trojan War—and her sister, Clytemnestra, Queen of Mycenae.

9)
Conservative political commentator Matt Walsh criticised the decision on X, stating: ‘Nolan knows that if he casts a white woman in the role of “the most beautiful woman in the world”, he’ll be called a racist. He’s technically talented, but he’s a coward.’ Elon Musk agreed, replying ‘Exactly’, and labelled Nolan—who had cast a Black woman in the role—an ‘anti-white racist’, accusing him of ‘changing the race of characters from *The Odyssey* just to win awards’.

10)
Furthermore, some quarters criticised the casting of Black musician Travis Scott as the bard and transgender actor Elliot Page as the Greek soldier Sinon. However, Nolan pays no heed to such voices. In an interview with *The Telegraph*, he spoke as follows about the debates surrounding the casting that take place before a film’s release:

‘This sort of debate that takes place before people have actually seen the film is always pointless. That’s because the people debating it don’t yet know what the film is actually like.’

11)
There was a clear reason for casting Scott, too. ‘I cast him because I wanted to convey the history of this story being passed down as “oral poetry”, which is similar to rap,’ he told *TIME*.

Regarding Elliot Page, with whom he has reunited for the first time since *Inception* (2010), he commented on the Canadian TV programme *The Morning Show*: ‘I thought it was the perfect role for him. It’s always a pleasure to work with him again.’ Unfazed by criticism, he stuck to the casting choices he believed in.

12)
The world’s first film shot entirely in IMAX. Director Nolan’s meticulous attention to detail explodes onto the screen.

True to his long-standing commitment to large-scale live-action filming, Director Nolan’s production was a grand undertaking spanning six countries: Morocco, Greece, Italy, Iceland, Scotland and the United States.

According to *Vanity Fair*, during the 91-day shoot, the director aimed to minimise reliance on green screens, ensuring the actors performed whilst surrounded by real locations and props. His commitment was such that a Greek navy vessel was actually built to be seaworthy, allowing filming to take place on the Mediterranean Sea.

13)
Another major feature is that the entire film was shot using IMAX cameras. *The Odyssey* is the first feature film in history to be shot entirely with IMAX cameras using 70mm film—wider than the 35mm typically used in cinema. Whilst this format delivers stunning image quality and an immersive visual experience with a significantly wider vertical field of view, filming in this format presented numerous challenges.

14)
The box-shaped camera, as huge as a fridge, made a deafening noise—so much so that Matt Damon described it as ‘like acting whilst having a blender whirring right in front of your face’. To overcome this challenge, IMAX developed a new-generation camera specifically for this film, commonly known as ‘The Keeley’.

However, it still weighed around 135 kilograms, and a helicopter was reportedly required to transport it up the rocky mountainside. Furthermore, because the camera was so large, the actors couldn't see each other’s faces while filming; to solve this, mirrors were reportedly installed on set to help them maintain eye contact.

15)
Spoiler alert. What are the differences between the original novel and the film?

To condense this epic narrative into a film of approximately three hours, and to ensure that both those familiar with the original work and those who are not can enjoy this 3,000-year-old story as entertainment, the film features several directorial choices and depictions that differ from the source material. In particular, the protagonist Odysseus, played by Matt Damon, is portrayed as a more modern and complex character who suffers from war-induced PTSD and is plagued by guilt and pangs of conscience over his past deeds.

So, let’s take a look at the main differences from the original work, as presented by *Vanity Fair* alongside comments from Emily Wilson, a translator of Homer’s *Odyssey* and a classical scholar.

16)
The portrayal of Calypso (Charlize Theron)

Calypso, played by Charlize Theron, is a beautiful nymph from Greek mythology. Odysseus, adrift as he seeks to return to his homeland, ends up spending seven years on the island of Ogygia, where she lives. In the original text, Calypso, having fallen in love with Odysseus, promises to grant him immortality if he remains on the island and shares her bed every night. Odysseus is forced to continue living with her against his will, and Calypso is portrayed, in a sense, as a figure who seduces him and keeps him on the island.

17)
In contrast, Nolan’s version of Calypso, while drawn to Odysseus, is portrayed as a therapist of sorts, healing his heart and memory, scarred by war. She soothes his pain with the narcotic lotus flower and, once Odysseus has regained his memory, ultimately allows him to set off on the journey of his own accord.

18)
The portrayal of Circe (Samantha Morton)

Circe, a goddess possessing the magical power to transform humans into animals, turns Odysseus’s companions into pigs. In the original text, as Odysseus sets out to Circe’s lair to rescue his companions, the god Hermes appears before him and gives him a herb to counteract Circe’s magic. He then makes Circe promise to turn his companions back into humans, whilst advising Odysseus to have a relationship with her if she so desires. Furthermore, he warns him to take care not to have his manhood cut off.

19)
In contrast, Circe, played by Samantha Morton in the film adaptation, is not portrayed as a figure who seduces Odysseus. Rather, she seeks to make Odysseus and his companions realise that they are nothing more than greedy ‘pigs’—that is, to make them confront their ‘true nature’. This overlaps with the theme of ‘desire’ that runs throughout the work, and here it is expressed as an insatiable appetite.

20)
The depiction of the final scene

In the original text, Odysseus, having returned to Ithaca, massacres Penelope’s suitors, who had been holding her to ransom in her own home. Upon learning of this, the suitors’ relatives plot revenge, and the people of Ithaca are on the verge of revolting. At that moment, Athena (the daughter of Zeus, played by Zendaya in this film) appears, ordering them to cease the fighting and erasing the memory of the events that had transpired from the people’s minds. However, according to Emily Wilson, Odysseus’s story does not end there. He tells his wife Penelope that he intends to set out on another plundering expedition to reclaim his lost wealth, and it is only then that the story finally draws to a close.

21)
In the film’s finale, too, Odysseus—played by Matt Damon—sets sail. Yet his aim is not to reclaim his wealth, but to make amends for what he himself has taken. Accompanied by Penelope, he heads west—towards what is considered the edge of the world—to pay his respects to the comrades who lost their lives in the war.

Things to know to get more out of the film "The Odyssey"

https://www.vogue.co.jp/article/christopher-nolans-film-the-odyssey

A Guide to the Monsters and Witches in the Movie *The Odyssey*: Exploring the Names and Origins of the Gods Who Plague the Journey Home
https://ciatr.jp/topics/339338

Why Does the Movie *The Odyssey* End This Way? Decoding the Film Through Its Differences from the Original Work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OCPKtjCWhc&t=415s

A Quick 15-Minute Primer on Greek Mythology to Prepare for Watching the Movie *The Odyssey*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHZBIYUSMV8&t=12s

Director Nolan’s Best Yet! Behind the Scenes of Christopher Nolan’s Epic *The Odyssey*, Shot Entirely in IMAX®
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MaHKLpCWawM

Behind the Scenes of the IMAX Filming of *The Odyssey*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJ58V-Jyrro&t=27s

The Secret Of The Odyssey - with Christopher Nolan, Matt Damon, Anne Hathaway, Tom Holland & Zendaya
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKql9c7kq4A&t=712s

Behind the Scenes of *The Odyssey*
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=giNjyYykEag

A visit to the Musée Galliera in Paris. The 18th-century French fashion revolution [Dreaming of Paris]

A visit to the Musée Galliera in Paris. The 18th-century French fashion revolution [Dreaming of Paris]

//Summary - Level-C1//
The exhibitions at the Musée Galliera and Musée Cognac-Jay explore 18th-century French fashion and its enduring influence. During this period, clothing expressed social status, refinement and aesthetic ideals. Characteristic garments included restrictive corsets, expansive panniers, richly decorated stomachers, lace accessories and delicate fabrics such as gauze and muslin. By the late 18th century, white muslin dresses reflected a growing preference for a more natural, liberated appearance. The exhibitions also demonstrate how later designers, including Dior, Chanel and Galliano, reinterpreted 18th-century styles. Paintings displayed alongside original garments further reveal the intricate construction and beauty of this remarkable fashion era.

1)
Currently on display at the Musée Galliera in Paris:

‘La mode du XVIIIe siècle. Un héritage fantasmé

(18th-Century Fashion – A Fantasised Legacy)’

The exhibition runs from 14 March to 12 July 2026.

And the exhibition ‘Révéler le féminin (Revealing Femininity)’ at the Musée Cognac-Jay.
Runs from 25 March to 20 September 2026.

Here, I have summarised these two 18th-century exhibitions, jointly held by the two museums.

In the 18th century, France was Europe's centre of sophistication and prestige. French-style elegant attire captivated the courts of various nations, and fashion became a language that signified not merely clothing, but social status, refinement and aesthetic sensibility.

2)
French fashion, which never ceases to stir my emotions, features soft pastel colours, floral patterns, lace and Watteau-style walls!

This exhibition covers not only the costumes of the Rococo era themselves, but also the ‘18th century as imagined’ by people from the 19th century onwards.

The latter half of the exhibition at the Galliera Museum showcases dresses by Christian Dior, Galliano, Chanel and Louis Vuitton that draw inspiration from this era.

3)
Amongst the many dresses on display, I’d like to highlight some characteristic features of the 18th century.

The ‘Corps à baleines’—the precursor to the corset. Stiffened with whalebone or metal, this garment strictly shaped the torso from the bust downwards. Worn over a shirt and beneath a dress, it corrected the body itself to achieve the ideal form.

4)
Used since the 16th century, this structure compressed the chest and abdomen, restricting free movement.

The silhouette at the back was inverted triangular, and the waist was extremely narrow. The waist was compressed so tightly that one could not even yawn. It is said that some women even fainted.
Beauty can, at times, be constricting.

5)
A silhouette that flares outwards — the ‘Panier’

What is striking about 18th-century dresses is their width.

The ‘panier’ was a boned undergarment worn beneath the skirt.
Supported by wicker, metal or whalebone, it dramatically widened a woman’s hips.

It is said that on occasion, it became so enormous that one had to pass through doorways sideways. Yet it was precisely this exaggerated silhouette that epitomised 18th-century ‘prestige’.

6)
Adorning the centre of the dress — Pièce d’estomac

The ‘pièce d’estomac’ was a removable decorative panel adorning the front of the dress.
Lavishly embellished with embroidery, ribbons and jewellery, it was attached to cover the corset.

As the décolletage was the focal point, it was adorned with the most opulent decorations.

7)
Lace cascading over the shoulders — Barbes

‘Barbes’, which were fashionable during the reign of Louis XV, were two long fabric trims attached to a woman’s headdress.
Made from muslin or lace, they hung softly from high on the head down to the shoulders, looking beautiful even when stationary. They swayed with every step and every turn of the head.

8)
Cuff Lace — Engageantes

‘Engageantes’ are removable lace trims worn on the cuffs.
Made from linen or cotton, they sometimes featured double or triple ruffles to adorn the wrists.

Women in the 18th century had to be careful to stage even their hand movements. The lace made every gesture seem even more delicate and elegant.

9)
Gauze — Gaze

‘Gaze’ is a light fabric that achieves a sense of transparency through its loose weave.
Woven from silk, linen or cotton, it became hugely fashionable in France during the latter half of the 18th century.

10)
White Fabric — Mousseline

Mousseline, imported from India, was a light, soft and flowing cotton fabric.

Towards the end of the 18th century, people gradually began to yearn for a ‘natural’ look. White mousseline dresses symbolised this shift: a high waistline, flowing fabric and a figure left largely unrestrained. The Queen loved this natural texture.

In 1783, Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun caused a scandal by painting Marie Antoinette wearing a white muslin dress. It defied Versailles court conventions up to that point, as many interpreted it as depicting the Queen in her undergarments.

Cotton, a natural and rough material, must have offered a liberation from the strict etiquette and heavy costumes of Versailles.

This style became a precursor to the ‘Empire style’ that followed.

At the Cognac Jay Museum, the costumes depicted in the paintings are displayed alongside the actual dresses. The museum has a large collection of 18th-century portraits, and the painters masterfully capture the lustre of silk, the transparency of lace, the layering of fabrics, and the sparkle of jewellery.

You can also see four or five works by the Rococo painters Boucher and Fragonard.

11)
Here is the oil painting I created, copying Boucher’s *Madame de Pompadour*, shortly before I turned twenty.
After viewing this exhibition, looking at portraits gives you a much clearer understanding of the dresses' structure.

I was utterly enchanted by 18th-century fashion, with its pursuit of a delicate, elegant ideal, and by that dreamlike, ephemeral, beautiful world.

A visit to the Musée Galliera in Paris. The 18th-century French fashion revolution [Dreaming of Paris]

https://fudge.jp/culture_life/column-culture_life/385222/

Kiyoshi Hasegawa: the "solitary printmaker." What was the Japanese aesthetic that bridged Japan and Paris and blossomed abroad?

Kiyoshi Hasegawa: the "solitary printmaker." What was the Japanese aesthetic that bridged Japan and Paris and blossomed abroad?

//Summary - Level-C1//
Kiyoshi Hasegawa (1891 - 1980) was a pioneering Japanese printmaker who moved to France at 27 and became renowned for mastering and reviving classical copperplate techniques through self-study. Despite personal tragedies, poor health, financial difficulties, and the hardships of two world wars, he remained devoted to developing his distinctive artistic style. His work combined Western printmaking methods with a deeply rooted Japanese aesthetic, particularly evident in his delicate treatment of nature, traditional themes, and subtle monochrome tones. His interpretation of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter helped renew interest in modern Japanese printmaking in Paris. Although regarded as a “solitary printmaker,” Hasegawa gained international recognition while preserving his artistic independence and Japanese sensibility throughout his long career.

1)
Kiyoshi Hasegawa was a leading figure in Japanese printmaking and a pioneer of copperplate engraving. At 27, he travelled alone to France, where he taught himself copperplate engraving while developing new techniques. For these achievements, he is regarded as an artist who bridged Japan and Paris.

Currently, the Panasonic Shiodome Art Museum is hosting the first large-scale touring exhibition to bring together about 130 works from the Machida City Museum of International Print Art collection outside the museum. We introduce the world of Kiyoshi Hasegawa’s copperplate engravings, which evoke nostalgia and strike a chord in the heart.

2)
A dream of becoming a printmaker fuelled by life’s adversities:

In the 1900s, woodblock prints were the mainstay of printmaking in Japan, whilst ukiyo-e was the Japanese art form that enjoyed popularity in the West. To aspire to become a copperplate printmaker in Paris during such an era must have required considerable resolve and a strong will. Kiyoshi Hasegawa’s artistic style and subjects varied greatly from one period to the next, and one senses that his eventful life significantly influenced this.

3)
In Taishō 7 (1918), shortly after the First World War, Hasegawa’s early career was fraught with turmoil. Born in Yokohama, Hasegawa seems to have developed an interest in the arts at an early age, partly due to his father's influence; his father loved classical Chinese studies, calligraphy, painting, and antiques. However, although born into a wealthy family, he was struck by tragedy, losing his father at the age of 11 and his mother at 17.

Furthermore, after graduating from Azabu Junior High School, he aimed to enter university on his uncle's recommendation; however, poor health forced him to abandon this plan. Whilst he naturally harboured a strong desire to pursue an art career and learn more about the techniques of copperplate engraving, it was likely these setbacks that ultimately prompted Hasegawa to set off alone for Paris.

4)
Whilst attending an art school, Hasegawa began his career as an illustrator for amateur art magazines. Around the same time, he also started creating prints. At a time when woodblock printing was still mainstream in Japan, he sought to learn Western printmaking techniques, studying etching*1 under Saburōsuke Okada, who had lived in France, and Bernard Leach, who had come from Britain.

*1 An indirect intaglio technique (etching) in which a metal plate coated with a resist is scratched with a needle to remove the resist, and the exposed areas are then etched to create the image

Although he was familiar with the Expressionist style characterised by strong brushwork and bold compositions—which was attracting attention in Japan at the time—he was drawn to meticulous, delicate line drawings and became deeply engrossed in copperplate engraving.

5)
‘In this exhibition, we are also displaying prints by Odilon Redon, William Blake and Wassily Kandinsky—artists who influenced him—as well as works by his contemporaries, allowing visitors to trace the process by which Hasegawa became increasingly devoted to copperplate engraving within the context of his era,’ explains Shiori Takano, curator at the Machida City Museum of Graphic Arts, who organised the exhibition.

6)
Taking classical prints as his model and pursuing lost techniques:

Having arrived in France after a long sea voyage via the United States, Hasegawa—who had always been in poor health—began his life in the south of France rather than in Paris, on the advice of his doctor. Although he was still a fledgling artist, and despite the economic boom in Japan caused by the First World War and the inheritance he had received from his parents, his life was by no means easy.

Nevertheless, it is said that he had even considered calling his younger brother to Paris once his life had settled down. However, his brother died prematurely two years later, and the despair and loneliness he must have felt at that time are immeasurable. As if to dispel that loneliness and anxiety, Hasegawa threw himself into mastering copperplate engraving.

7)
Looking at Hasegawa’s early work, *A Small Bouquet*, one is drawn in by the meticulous depiction of the fluffy seeds. This piece was created using the classical technique of engraving*2, a method that helped define one direction of Hasegawa’s subsequent work.

*2 A form of direct engraving in which a tool called a burin is used to carve lines (the image) directly into the plate

This technique, which involves carving the copper plate with a burin—a graver with a diamond-shaped tip—is one that Parisian printmakers find requires considerable skill. Given that Hasegawa mastered this technique without a mentor, his efforts must have been considerable.

8)
‘Hasegawa collected a library of works that systematically described art history and copperplate engraving techniques, and, drawing on both theory and practice, he continued to hone his skills. Furthermore, while pursuing line-drawing expression, he devoted his efforts to reviving another classical technique: mezzotint*3. ‘Known in French as “Manière Noire” (the black technique), this method involves creating fine scratches across the entire plate to form a black ground, before polishing the plate to make the drawn lines stand out,’ explains Mr Takano.

*3 A direct technique in which countless scratches are made on the plate using a tool, and the image is revealed by scraping away the material. It is characterised by its ability to render soft tonal gradations.

9)
In 20th-century France, virtually no printmakers worked in this technique, and Hasegawa’s reputation grew as the printmaker who revived this forgotten classical method. The monochrome world created with a tool called a ‘verso’, in which subjects stand out against a black background, further accentuates Hasegawa’s delicate expression.

Hasegawa is considered to have pioneered the technique of creating a ground by incising diagonal lines in all directions. Perhaps because this technique was not native to his country, he was able to reinterpret it boldly and transform it into his own distinctive art.

10)
‘Hasegawa himself said that this rendering of black was fundamentally rooted in the ink art he had seen as a child. Whilst the oil-based inks commonly used in Western printmaking produce a rich, glossy finish, it seems he worked in collaboration with his printer, undergoing repeated trial and error in pursuit of a softer, deeper black tone,’ explains Mr Takano.

11)
Active as a printmaker bridging Paris and Japan:

One of the turning points in Hasegawa’s career as a printmaker was his involvement with the ‘Association of Independent Artists and Printmakers’. This loose association of artists was founded in 1923 by Jean-Émile Labrard, a master engraver, together with Raoul Dufy, who was gaining attention as a woodblock printmaker and lithographer.

The membership included a veritable who’s who of artists, such as Marie Laurencin, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso. Having received an invitation from one of the founders, Dufy, Hasegawa became a member of the association—the only Japanese artist to do so.

12)
‘This was the event that led to Hasegawa—who was in his mid-thirties at the time—gaining recognition in Paris. He exhibited etchings, drypoints, and woodblock prints at the exhibition, making a strong impression. Having gone through a period of exploration, he was able to establish himself in Paris, earn a living and gain recognition as an artist with a unique technical style; this must have marked a significant milestone for him,’ said Mr Takano.

European artists also respected the techniques Hasegawa established, suggesting they spurred one another on. Hasegawa’s works are neither purely Western nor purely Japanese, but display an independent individuality.

13)
‘As is often said of Hasegawa—that he was a “solitary printmaker”—he was a man of great diligence who, even in Paris, did not belong to any particular school but instead devoted himself to mastering a diverse range of printmaking techniques through self-study. Whilst he admired Odilon Redon (d. 1916), he is said to have remarked that, as far as other artists were concerned, “there was no one to whom I felt I had to bow my head, particularly in artistic terms”.

Against this backdrop, this exhibition deliberately presents works by artists from the same community during the same period side by side, allowing visitors to compare the aspects of Hasegawa’s work that the West influenced with those in which he carved out his own unique world. I hope visitors will appreciate Hasegawa’s works within the context of the parallel relationships he shared with others pursuing art in France at the same time.”

14)
A copperplate engraving interpretation of the Japanese classic *The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter*:

One highlight of this exhibition is the French translation of *The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter*, a masterpiece illustrated with engravings. Although this story is familiar to every Japanese person, the work—which depicts Heian-period aristocrats with delicate brushstrokes and elegance—met with a tremendous response in Paris.

‘Whilst ukiyo-e enjoyed great popularity in France, the works of printmakers who came after the ukiyo-e period had not been widely recognised. I believe that, in such an era, Hasegawa’s works catalysed the revitalisation of the image of modern Japanese printmaking.’

15)
Rather than simply adapting traditional Japanese themes to Western tastes, these works sublimate the subtlety inherent in the Japanese spirit through mystical expression. Looking at these, one senses that, whilst making full use of the Western technique of copperplate engraving, Hasegawa also wished to express a sense of Japanese pride. Concurrent with this publication, Hasegawa also devoted himself to organising the ‘Exhibition of Modern Japanese Prints and Their Origins’ (organised by the Japan Print Association) at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris.

‘It is said that, in creating these works, he obtained copies of Edo-period printed books. ‘This exhibition also offers a rare opportunity to view, all at once, the ‘suits’ (separate sheets of the illustrations) that are found only in the special-edition books held by the Machida City Museum of Graphic Arts,’ says Mr Takano.

16)
A world encompassing all things in nature, reached after overcoming harrowing experiences such as war:

Just as he was gaining recognition as a printmaker and continuing his work with great vigour, an event occurred that once again drove Hasegawa into a desperate situation. That was the Second World War. In wartime France, creating art became extremely difficult, and he faced hardships both materially and emotionally.

However, whilst many Japanese were returning home, Hasegawa resolved to remain in France. One day, whilst taking a walk on the outskirts of Paris, he had a mysterious experience in which a single tree seemed to speak to him.

17)
It may be that the quintessentially Japanese sensibility—the belief that all things are imbued with the spirit of the divine—came to full bloom amidst these extreme circumstances. Inspired by his encounter with the nascent seeds of a new creative endeavour, he began to take an interest in trees, flowers and small creatures. He set about expressing nature's forms through copperplate engravings.

In Shōwa 20 (1945), the year the war ended, he endured a harrowing period during which he was temporarily detained in an internment camp as an ‘enemy alien’; yet, as if to cast that experience aside, he began to beautifully engrave scenes of nature—such as plants, birds and fish—into many of his works.

18)
Furthermore, in his later years, by producing these works using the mezzotint technique, he created a beautiful style in which plants, birds and fish seemed to emerge from a monochrome world. This evoked a microcosm formed by various combinations of living creatures and still lifes.

19)
A rare artist who maintained a Japanese aesthetic sensibility and remained true to his own uniqueness:

Mr Takano explains why Hasegawa was one of the few Japanese artists to gain recognition in Paris:
‘At the time, many Japanese people were coming to Paris to study, but it was said that “although Japan has its own unique culture, they come to France, adopt Western influences and lose their originality”. There was also criticism that their work was somewhat imitative, and that they were content with this and returned to Japan.

‘On the other hand,’ says Mr Takano, ‘Hasegawa was highly regarded precisely because, despite having lived in France for so long, he had not lost his Japanese sensibility.’

Hasegawa, who was described as a ‘solitary Japanese artist’, can perhaps be said to have remained true to himself in his creative vision, without ever pandering to anyone. From the 1950s onwards, solo exhibitions of Hasegawa’s work began to be held in Japan as well, and the next generation of printmakers began to visit him.

20)
Did Hasegawa himself ever wish to return to Japan? We can only speculate based on his work, but his copperplate engravings exude nostalgia and longing, as if the scent of his homeland lingers faintly within them. Surely he never forgot Japan's landscapes.

In Shōwa 55 (1980), Hasegawa passed away at the age of 89. That year, some ten years after the initial planning, a large-scale retrospective exhibition of works selected by the artist himself was held at the National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto. Although Hasegawa could not set foot on Japanese soil, his works moved many people.

I sincerely hope that you will come to the exhibition to experience the world that Kiyoshi Hasegawa, nurtured in both Paris and Japan, wished to leave behind.

21)
Kiyoshi Hasegawa Exhibition – The Journey of a Copperplate Engraver Who Lived in Paris: From the Collection of the Machida City International Museum of Print Art:

Centred on one of Japan’s finest collections of works by Kiyoshi Hasegawa, held by the Machida City International Museum of Print Art, this exhibition presents masterpieces spanning his career from his early years to his later years, organised into the prologue ‘The Japanese Period – That Which Calls from Beyond the Water and the Sky’, Chapter 1: ‘Mastering Copperplate Engraving – The Discovery and Renewal of Classical Techniques’, Chapter 2: ‘The Paris Print Scene – Friendships with Painters’, Chapter 3: ‘The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter – Japanese Beauty Engraved in France’, Chapter 4: ‘Nature – Beholding the Divine in Broad Daylight’, and Chapter 5: ‘Still Life – The Universe of the Manière Noire’. Visitors can appreciate Kiyoshi Hasegawa’s diverse and colourful works, organised chronologically and set in contrast with those of Western artists.

Kiyoshi Hasegawa: the "solitary printmaker." What was the Japanese aesthetic that bridged Japan and Paris and blossomed abroad?

https://intojapanwaraku.com/art/312819/

Kiyoshi Hasegawa (1891 - 1980) - Wikipedia

https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%95%B7%E8%B0%B7%E5%B7%9D%E6%BD%94

Kiyoshi Hasegawa (December 9, 1891 – December 13, 1980) was a printmaker from Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture, who was active in both Japan and France.

He moved to France in 1918 and mastered various copperplate engraving techniques. He is particularly renowned for reviving the old printmaking technique known as mezzotint (or *manière noire*) and establishing it as a unique style of his own. Although he received numerous honours and awards after moving to France, he never returned to Japan and passed away in Paris.

[Kiyoshi Hasegawa No1] A painter highly acclaimed for his serene works—an overview of his career

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zk7vWOlOLYM

Yokohama Museum of Art Collection Exhibition "Online Talk: The Works and Techniques of Kiyoshi Hasegawa—On Mezzotint (Manière Noire)"

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1exkQOuIWQg

 

 

 

 

The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Bamboo_Cutter

 

The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter (Japanese: 竹取物語, Hepburn: Taketori Monogatari) is a monogatari (a fictional prose narrative) with elements of Japanese folklore. Written by an unknown author in the late 9th or early 10th century during the Heian period, it is considered the oldest surviving work in the monogatari form. The story follows Kaguya-hime, a princess from the Moon, who is discovered as a baby inside the stalk of a glowing bamboo plant. After she grows, her beauty attracts five suitors seeking her hand in marriage, whom she turns away by challenging them each with an impossible task; she later attracts the affection of the Emperor of Japan. At the tale's end, Kaguya-hime reveals her celestial origins and returns to the Moon. The story is also known as The Tale of Princess Kaguya (かぐや姫の物語, Kaguya-hime no Monogatari), after its protagonist.

The possibility that the ‘climate of thousands of years ago’ is embedded in the languages we speak today

The possibility that the ‘climate of thousands of years ago’ is embedded in the languages we speak today

Human language is not merely a tool for communication; it may preserve within its sounds "traces" of the environments our distant ancestors inhabited.

//Summary - Level-C1//
The study challenges the traditional belief that the environment largely affects language. An analysis of 9,179 languages found a global correlation between temperature and sonority: languages spoken in warmer regions tend to contain more resonant sounds, particularly vowels. In comparison, those in colder regions tend to be less sonorous and consonant-rich. However, climate does not immediately alter language; such adaptation may take hundreds or thousands of years. Therefore, modern languages may preserve traces of ancient climates, potentially offering insights into human migration, history, and past environments.

A)
1)
Do you have the impression that languages spoken in southern regions tend to have a resonant quality, whilst those spoken in northern regions sound more subdued?

In fact, science may support this stereotype.

2)
Research by an international collaborative team led by Nankai University (NKU) in China and Kiel University in Germany has shown that languages spoken in warmer regions tend to sound more resonant (high sonority). In comparison, languages from colder regions tend to sound more subdued (low sonority).

So, why does temperature affect the sound of a language?

B)
3)
Details of the research were published in *PNAS Nexus*.

Temperature shapes language sonority: Revalidation from a large dataset
https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad384

C)
4)
‘Are languages unaffected by climate? Challenging a century-old conventional wisdom’.

When you travel to a warm country, do you ever find that the local language sounds more melodious?

Conversely, in colder countries, the language might sound rather constricted.

This intuitive question—whether language is related to regional climate—has long captured people’s interest.

5)
However, for a long time, linguistic research held that the environment does not influence the sounds of language itself.

In the early 20th century, the linguist Edward Sapir stated that ‘the environment scarcely influences the sound system of a language’.

Subsequently, with the spread of Chomsky’s generative grammar, the view that ‘the basic structure of language is innate to humans, and environmental influence is extremely limited’ became firmly established.

In other words, for a long time, people believed language was an independent, closed system.

6)
However, in recent years, a succession of studies has begun to cast doubt on this view.

For example, in high-altitude regions where the air is thin, unique plosives (ejective sounds) produced using lung pressure are frequently used.

Furthermore, low rainfall and humidity may influence the vowel ratio; another study reported a tendency for the number of vowels to decrease and sonority to be lower in drier regions.

These examples have led to a growing recognition that the environment may influence the sounds of human language.

Among these, the relationship between ‘temperature’ and ‘sonority’ has recently attracted particular attention.

7)
Although small-scale studies had previously suggested that ‘languages from warmer regions tend to be more sonorous’, the number of languages surveyed—around 100—was too small to provide sufficient evidence.

Consequently, an international team led by Dr Søren Wichmann, a linguist at the University of Kiel in Germany, set out to test this hypothesis through a larger-scale, more comprehensive study.

If temperature truly does affect the sonority of a language, this should be consistently evident across many languages worldwide.

So, is this hypothesis correct?

D)
8)
The surprising link between ‘temperature and voice’ revealed by an analysis of 9,179 languages:

The surprising link between ‘temperature and voice’ revealed by an analysis of 9,179 languages / The map uses different colours to show the degree to which each of the 9,179 languages spoken worldwide is ‘sonorant’ (has a high degree of sonority). On the map, the closer a colour is to red, the more resonant the language (with many resonant sounds such as vowels); the closer it is to blue, the more subdued the resonance (with many consonants and a more subdued sound).

9)
Looking at this map, red dots are highly concentrated near the equator and in warm regions of the Southern Hemisphere, indicating that many resonant languages are spoken there. This trend is especially pronounced in the South Pacific islands (Oceania), such as Polynesia, and in Africa. Conversely, the north-west coast of North America (from Canada to the vicinity of Washington State in the US) has many blue dots, indicating that languages with fewer resonant sounds—such as those featuring consecutive consonants—are spoken there.

10)
However, some exceptions exist: blue dots (indicating languages with subdued resonance) appear even in hot regions, such as Central America and Southeast Asia. These exceptions reflect systematic features of the languages in those regions or historical contact between languages.

E)
11)
Is this hypothesis actually correct?

To answer this, researchers first re-examined the relationship between sound-transmission mechanisms and air properties.

When we speak, our voice travels through the air as sound waves; however, how these sound waves propagate varies significantly depending on the air's properties.

For example, in cold, dry air, the surface of our vocal cords (the organs that vibrate to produce sound) becomes dry, making it difficult for them to vibrate smoothly.

12)
Consequently, it becomes difficult to sustain rich-sounding (voiced) sounds, such as vowels and nasal sounds produced by vocal cord vibration, for a long time and with clarity.

In contrast, warm air absorbs high-frequency sounds well.

Consequently, consonants (voiceless sounds) that contain a high proportion of high frequencies—such as fricatives and affricates, which produce sounds like ‘sh’ and ‘ss’—are less easily transmitted; as a result, low-pitched vowels such as ‘a’ and ‘o’, as well as resonant nasal sounds, tend to carry more clearly over greater distances.

People living in cold climates often speak without opening their mouths wide to avoid inhaling cold, dry air; this can make their speech seem stilted.

13)
Conversely, people in warmer regions can open their mouths wide when speaking, which is thought to naturally lead to languages that frequently use resonant vowels.

In linguistics, the ease with which sounds resonate and the distance they travel is referred to as ‘sonority’. Researchers therefore hypothesised that ‘warmer regions are likely to have more languages with high sonority (rich resonance), whilst colder regions, conversely, are likely to have more languages with low sonority that contain a greater number of consonants’.

To test this hypothesis, an international research team led by Dr Vichmann embarked on an unprecedented endeavour to investigate the relationship between language resonance and temperature on a global scale.

14)
The research team utilised a language database known as ‘ASJP (Automated Similarity Judgment Programme)’, which contains data on as many as 9,179 different languages from around the world.

This database comprehensively covers approximately 5,293 languages (the number of languages classified under the ISO international standard) spoken in almost every region of the world, as well as their dialects and regional variants.

Using this data, the researchers examined the phonemes (the smallest units of sound that distinguish sounds) that make up words in each language, quantified how resonant these phonemes were, and calculated a value known as the ‘Mean Sonority Index (MSI)’, which represents the average of these values.

15)
Intuitively, the MSI indicates that words with many vowels sound more resonant, while words consisting mainly of consonants sound less resonant.

We plotted this MSI on a world map for each language and examined its correlation with each region's annual average temperature.

The results revealed a clear pattern that far exceeded expectations.

The warmer the region—the closer it was to the equator—the higher the MSI value (or ‘sonority’) of the languages spoken there.

16)
In particular, languages from the Oceania region (the South Pacific islands, such as Polynesia) and Africa had very high MSI values, characterised by rich, sonorous pronunciation with a high proportion of vowels.

Conversely, the Salish language family had the lowest MSI; this group of Indigenous languages is spoken along the north-western coast of North America, stretching from British Columbia in Canada to the vicinity of Washington State in the United States.

Languages in this region were characterised by many words with consecutive consonants, resulting in a less resonant, somewhat constricted pronunciation.

In contrast, results were exceptional in parts of Central America and Southeast Asia, where, despite being hot regions, the MSI was low.

17)
However, the research team stated: ‘Although there are some exceptions, overall, we found a clear correlation globally: the higher the average temperature in a region, the richer and more sonorous the language.’

Indeed, statistical analysis confirmed that as annual average temperature increases, a language's sonority also increases significantly.

So, why do exceptions arise in some regions despite this global trend?

18)
To investigate this issue in more detail, the research team compared languages within the same language family (a systematic group of languages).

The results revealed that, within language families, there are often cases where no clear difference in sonority emerges even when comparing languages from cold and warm regions.

For example, in language groups with a common ancestor, such as the Indo-European and Sino-Tibetan language families, phonetic characteristics often had not changed significantly, even when the languages were distributed across regions with different climates.

The research team concluded that this is because it takes a very long time for a language to adapt to the climate and for its sounds to change; consequently, short-term climatic changes or migration alone are unlikely to cause significant shifts in linguistic sounds.

19)
In other words, it suggests that it takes several hundred to several thousand years for changes in sound to become clearly apparent, and that such a period of time may not yet have elapsed in these regions.

In these exceptional regions, linguistic features shaped by past environmental conditions may have been preserved intact.

Although the relationship between temperature and language appears simple at first glance, a long period of time and a complex history lie behind it.

So why does it take so long for a language to adapt to temperature and change its sound?

F)
20)
It was the climate that shaped the sound of language:

This study has revealed an intriguing new perspective—previously unconsidered in linguistics—that ‘temperature may influence the way human languages sound (sonority)’.

Traditionally, it was believed in the field of linguistics that ‘the structure and sound of a language are scarcely influenced by the environment of the region in which it is spoken’.

The view long held by many researchers was that ‘the fundamental mechanisms of language are innate to humans, and are subject to little change due to the environment’.

21)
However, the findings of this study have prompted a thorough re-examination of this traditional way of thinking.

What this study has shown is that ‘rather than humans consciously adapting their language to the environment, the environment itself may be slowly changing the language’.

People become accustomed to their environment over long periods—spanning hundreds or even thousands of years—and during that time, the sounds and tones of the words they use may change gradually, without them even realising it.

This goes beyond linguistics alone, offering important new insights into human history and culture.

22)
According to the research team, it takes a very long time—ranging from several hundred to several thousand years—for the relationship between temperature and sonority to become clearly evident in a language.

In other words, the sound of the languages we speak today may well bear the imprint of the climate of the lands where our ancestors lived.

The researchers describe this as ‘the possibility that traces of the ancient environment may remain within the language itself as it slowly adapts to its surroundings’.

This suggests that a detailed analysis of the languages we speak today might provide clues as to the environments in which our distant ancestors lived.

23)
For example, if a language with a strikingly rich resonance is spoken in a region that is now cold, this may indicate that the language’s ancestors originally developed in a warmer climate.

This perspective opens up new possibilities for exploring the history of human migration and lost past environments through language.

Viewed in this light, the romantic hypothesis that the words we speak casually every day might conceal a record of the environments people lived in long ago feels more real.

Taking Japanese as an example, its many open syllables centred on vowels suggest a relatively rich sound palette.

24)
On the other hand, languages such as Russian and German, which contain many words with consecutive consonants, may have a more subdued sound and lower sonority (although this study did not analyse specific individual languages).

In this way, inferring the environments in which each language developed from its phonetic characteristics appears to be an interesting new area of research.

Furthermore, the findings of this study give us cause to reflect on the future of language.

In recent years, temperatures have been rising worldwide due to global warming, but will this climate change affect human languages in the future?

25)
If temperatures continue to rise, human languages may evolve to become even richer in resonance.

That said, such linguistic changes would likely take centuries, or even millennia, to occur.

Consequently, whilst we may never have the opportunity to observe such linguistic changes first-hand, the very idea that language may be closely linked to climate over the long term is a source of great surprise and fascination.

26)
Language may be more than merely a tool for communication; it may be deeply intertwined with the environment in which we live and with our history.

This study has provided a significant impetus for re-examining the relationship between humankind and the environment through the lens of linguistic evolution.

The possibility that the ‘climate of thousands of years ago’ is embedded in the languages we speak today

https://nazology.kusuguru.co.jp/archives/182089